NOTES AND REFERENCES 

1. . Friedmann, John, "The right to the city", in Richard M. Morse and Jorge E. Hardoy (Editors), Rethinking the Latin American City, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1992, p. 104-105
2. . This section on North America is a shortened version of the background paper prepared by Professor L.S. Bourne (University of Toronto) entitled "Urban growth and population distribution in North America: diverse and unfinished landscape". This has been published as Bourne, L.S., Urban Growth and Population Redistribution in North America: A Diverse and Unequal Landscape, Major Report 32, Centre for Urban and Community Studies, University of Toronto, Toronto, 1995, 41 pages.
3. . In Canada the urban population is defined as that population living in incorporated places of 1,000 or more and at densities of over 1,000 per square kilometre. In the U.S. the minimum threshold population for urban areas is 2,500.
4. . Goldberg, M. and J. Mercer, The Myth of the North American City: Continentalism Challenged, University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, 1986
5. . There are numerous reasons for this differential in death rates, but in part at least it is attributable to relatively high infant mortality rates among Black Americans.
6. . Miron, J. Demographic Change, Household Formation and Housing Demand, McGill-Queens University Press, Montreal, 1988.
7. . Sternlieb, G. and J.W. Hughes (editors), Americas New Market Geography, Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, 1986.
8. . From 1970 to 1990, for example, the U.S. population grew by 38% while the number of households increased by 62%.
9. . Beaujot, R., Population Change in Canada, McClelland and Stewart, Toronto, 1991.
10. . Bourne, L.S. and D. Ley (editors), The Changing Social Geography of Canadian Cities, McGill-Queens University Press. Montreal, 1993.

 

11. . For example, the geographic centre (or centre of gravity) of the U.S. population has moved continuously westward since the founding of the republic. In 1770 the centre was located on the coast just east of Baltimore, by 1850 it was in southern Ohio, by 1950 it had shifted west to the Indiana-Illinois border, and by 1990 it was almost exactly in the middle of the state of Missouri and thus near the mid-point of the country.
12. . The minimum total population for defining a metropolitan statistical area in New England is 75,000.
13. . The definitional difference arises because of two factors: one, the use of a higher size threshold for inclusion as a metropolitan area in the Canadian census; and second, the use of smaller geographical units as building blocks in defining the boundaries of metropolitan areas in Canada. In the U.S. the basic building blocks in delimiting metropolitan areas are counties; that is the entire county is added to the metropolitan area even if only a small portion of it is developed. Some of these counties, especially in the west, are very large. As a result U.S. metropolitan areas, on average, are much more geographically extensive than those in Canada.
14. . As defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget in 1980, and modified in 1990. CMSAs were defined only for metropolitan complexes of over 1 million in which two or more individual but adjacent metropolitan areas (MSAs) exhibited close economic and social integration.
15. . The Washington DC and Baltimore MSAs, when combined, had a total population of 6.7 million in 1990.
16. . For example, a consolidated metropolitan area definition for Toronto would include the Toronto CMA (3.9 million), the Hamilton CMA (600,000) and Oshawa CMA (240,000), and the rest of York County, for a total metropolitan population of 4.84 million in 1991.
17. . As contrasting examples in Canada, the population of the Toronto metropolitan area in 1986 was about 36% foreign-born, compared to less than 3% in St. Johns, Newfoundland and only 2% in Quebec City.
18. . Goldsmith, W.W. and E.J. Blakely, Separate Societies: Poverty and Inequality in US Cities, Temple University Press, Philadelphia, 1993; Bourne, L.S. "Close together and worlds apart: an analysis of changes in the ecology of income in Canadian Metropolitan Areas", Urban Studies Vol.30, No.8, 1993, pp.1293-1317.
19. . Borchert, J, "Futures of American Cities", Chapter 12 in J.F. Hart (editor) Our Changing Cities, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1991, pp. 218-250.Berry, B.J.L. America's Utopian Experiments: Communal Havens from Long-run Crises, University Press of New England, Hanover, NH, 1992.
20. . Noyelle, T. and T.M. Stanback, Jr. The Economic Transformation of American Cities, Rowman, Totowa, NJ, 1984; and Mills, E.S. and J.F. McDonald (editors), Sources of Metropolitan Growth, Rutgers University Press, 1992.
21. . Markusen, A. et al. High-Tech America, Allen and Unwin, Boston, 1986.
22. . Simmons, J. and L.S. Bourne, Urban Growth Trends in Canada, 1981-86: A New Geography of Change, Major Report No 25, Centre for Urban and Community Studies, University of Toronto, 1989; and Coffey, W. The Evolution of Canada's Metropolitan Economies, Institute for Research on Public Policy, Montreal, 1994.
23. . Sassen, S., The Global City, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1991.
24. . The four poorest states in per capita income are Mississippi, Arkansas, Alabama and Louisiana; the four highest income states are Connecticut, New Jersey, Maryland (these three include some of the higher income suburbs of New York and Washington DC) and Massachusetts.
25. . Frey, W. and A. Speare, Jr. "The revival of metropolitan growth in the U.S.", Population and Development Review, Vol.18, No.1, 1992, pp.129-146.
26. . The other two centres were Calgary, Alberta (oil, services) and Kitchener-Waterloo, Ontario (manufacturing, insurance, education).
27. . Borchert 1991, op. cit.; Chinitz, B. "A framework for speculating about future urban growth patterns in the US", Urban Studies, Vol.28, No.6, 1991, pp. 939-959; Bourne, L.S., "Recycling urban systems and metropolitan areas: a geographical agenda for the 1990s and beyond", Economic Geography Vol.67, No.3, 1991, pp. 185-209;and Hart, J.F. (editor) Our Changing Cities, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1991.
28. . Drache, D. and M.S. Gertler (editors), The New Era of Global Competition: State Policy and Market Power, McGill-Queens University Press, Montreal, 1991; and Noponen, H. et al (editors), Trading Industries; Trading Regions: International Trade, American Industry and Regional Economic Development, Guilford Press, 1993, New York.

 

29. . This section drew on various background papers prepared for the Global Report: Davila, Julio D., "Recent changes in production and population in Bogota, Colombia: a successful case of Clark's Law?"; Garcia-Guadilla, Maria Pilar and Virginia Jimenez-Diaz, "Urban growth in the metropolitan area of Caracas;" Garza, Gustavo, "Dynamics of Mexican urbanization: Mexico City emerging megolopolis and Metropolitan Monterrey"; and Jacobi, Pedro, "Trends in Sao Paulo Metropolitan Area."
30. . For the period 1920-1950 - Hauser, Philip M. and Robert W. Gardner, Urban Future: Trends and Prospects, Paper presented at the International Conference of Population and the Urban Future, Rome, September 1980, 55 pages and statistical annex which drew its data from United Nations, The Growth of the World's Urban and Rural Population, 1920-2000, Population Studies No. 44, United Nations, New York, 1969. For statistics from 1950 to the present, United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects 1992; Estimates and Projections of Urban and Rural Populations and of Urban Agglomerations, Department of Economic and Social Information and Policy Analysis, ST/ESA/SER.A/136, United Nations, New York, 1993, 164 pages.
31. . Care should be taken in drawing too many inferences from this. The scale of population loss among the region's indigenous population after the conquest by European powers meant that only in the 1870s did the region's population return to what it had been prior to the conquest.
32. . Statistics drawn from Hauser and Gardner 1980 and United Nations 1993, op. cit.
33. . This is because they began from a much larger population base in 1980, compared to 1970. Some notable exceptions include Mexico City Metropolitan Area with a much reduced annual increment in its population during the 1980s compared to the 1970s - although this might be exaggerated by the 1980 census figure being too high - and the two other largest metropolitan areas in Mexico, Guadalajara and Monterrey. Caracas and Medellin also had smaller annual increments in their population during th4e 1980s compared to the 1970s while in Montevideo and in the three largest Argentine cities (Buenos Aires, Cordoba and Rosario) there was very little increase.
34. . Lattes, Alfredo, "Population distribution and development in Latin America", Proceedings of the United Nations Expert Meeting on Population Distribution and Migration, Santa Cruz, Bolivia, ST/ESA/SER.R/133, U.N. Population Division, New York, 1995.
35. . Lattes 1995, op. cit.

 

36. . Based on statistics drawn from UN 1993, op. cit.
37. . United Nations 1993, op. cit.
38. . CELADE, "Population dynamics in the large cities of Latin America and the Caribbean", Proceedings of the United Nations Expert Meeting on Population Distribution and Migration, Santa Cruz, Bolivia, ST/ESA/SER.R/133, U.N. Population Division, New York, 1995.
39. . CELADE, Redistribución espacial de la población en América Latina: una visión sumaria del periódo 1950-1985, Centro Latinoamericano de Demografia (CELADE), Santiago, 1988, quoted in CELADE 1995, op. cit.
40. . CELADE 1995, op. cit.
41. . CELADE 1995, op. cit.
42. . Lattes 1995 and CELADE 1995, op. cit.
43. . See CELADE 1995, op. cit. One exception was Haiti where in 1986, infant mortality rates in Port-au-Prince were 102 per 1000 live births compared to a national figure of 100.
44. Lattes 1995, op. cit. reporting on the World Fertility Survey
45. . Recchini de Lattes, Zulma, "Urbanization and demographic ageing: the case of a developing country, Argentina", in Ageing and Urbanization, Sales No. E.91.XIII.12, United Nations, New York, 1991, quoted in CELADE 1995, op. cit.
46. . CELADE 1995, op. cit.
47. . Lattes 1995 and United Nations 1993, op. cit.
48. . Gilbert, Alan, The Latin American City, Latin American Bureau, London, 1994, page 51
49. . This paragraph draws from Lattes 1995, op. cit.
50. . Duhau, E., Población y Economía de la Zona Metropolitana de la Ciudad de Mexico: El Centro y la Periferia, Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Mimeo, 1992, quoted in CELADE 1995, op. cit.
51. . Valladares, Licia, "Río de Janeiro: la visión de los estudiosos de lo urbano", in Mario Lombardi and Danilo Veiga (editors), Las Ciudades en Conflicto: una Perspectiva Latinoamericana, Ediciones de la Banda Oriental, Montevideo, 1989, quoted in CELADE 1995, op. cit.
52. . Rodríguez, J., Dinámica Demográfica del Gran Santiago: Patrones Históricos, Tendencias Actuales, Perspectivas, Centro Latinoamericano de Demografia (CELADE) and Universidad de la Academia de Humanismo Cristiano (UAHC), Mimeo, 1992, quoted in CELADE 1995 op. cit.

 

53. . Lattes 1995, op. cit.
54. . CONAPO, Sistema de Ciudades y Distribución Espacial de la Población de México, Vol.1, Consejo National de Población, Mexico City, 1991.
55. . Duarte, Isis, "Población, migraciones internas y desarrollo en República Dominicana: 1950-1981", Paper presented at the seminar on Territorial Mobility of Populations; New Patterns in Latin America, Santo Domingo, 13-14 December 1991 quoted in Lattes 1995, op. cit.
56. . Gilbert 1994, op. cit.
57. . Comité Estatal de Estadísticas, "Cuba: el crecimiento urbano y las migraciones internas en el contexto del desarrollo económico y social", Paper presented at the Conference on the Peopling of the Americas, International Union for the Scientific Study of Population, Veracruz, May 1992, quoted in Lattes 1995, op. cit.
58. . Lattes 1995, op. cit.
59. . Roberts, Bryan, "Transitional cities", in Richard M. Morse and Jorge E. Hardoy (Editors), Rethinking the Latin American City, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore and London, 1992, pp. 50-65.
60. . CELADE 1995, op. cit. drawing from Elton, Charlotte, Migración Femenina en América Latina: Factores Determinantes, Series E, No.26, Centro Latinoamericano de Demografia (CELADE), Santiago de Chile, 1978;

Oliveira, Orlandina de and Brígida García, "Urbanization, migration and the growth of large cities: trends and implications in some developing countries", in Population Studies No. 89, E.83.XIII.3, United Nations, New York, 1984; Recchini de Lattes, Zulma, "Women in internal and international migration with special reference to Latin America", Population Bulletin of the United Nations, No.27,1989, pp. 95-107; and zasz, Ivonne, Mujeres Inmigrantes y Mercado de Trabajo en Santiago, Centro Latinoamericano de Demografia (CELADE), Santiago de Chile, 1994.

61. . Gilbert 1994, op. cit.
62. . DANE, Información Censo 93, Computer Diskette, DANE, Bogotá, 1994.
63. . Davila, Julio D., "Recent changes in production and population in Bogota, Colombia: a successful case of Clark's Law?", Background Paper for the United Nations Global Report on Human Settlements, 1995, 17 pages and appendices.

 

64. . Chant, Sylvia and Sarah A. Ratcliffe, "Migration and development: the importance of gender", in Sylvia Chant (Editor), Gender and Migration in Developing Countries, Belhaven Press, London, 1992, pp. 1-29
65. . Lattes, Alfredo E. and Zulma Recchini de Lattes, "Auge y declinación de las migraciones en Buenos Aires", in J. Jorrat and R. Sautu (Editors), Después de Germani, Editorial Paidos, Buenos Aires, 1992.
66. . Lattes 1995, op. cit.
67. . Gilbert 94, op. cit.
68. . Lattes, Alfredo E., "Migraciones hacia América Latina y el Caribe desde principios del siglio XIX", Cuaderno del CENEP, No.35, Buenos Aires, 1985.
69. . Lattes 1995, op. cit.
70. . Lattes 1995, op. cit.
71. . Lattes 1995, op. cit.
72. . Ramos, Joseph, "Growth, crises and strategic turnarounds", CEPAL Review, No. 50, August 1993, pp. 63-79.
73. . Ramos 1993, op. cit.
74. . Figures for Cuba were not available
75. . Gilbert 94, op. cit.
76. . Ramos 1993, op. cit.
77. . Hakkert, R. and F.W. Goza, "The demographic consequences of austerity in Latin America", in W.L. Canak (editor), Lost Promises: Debt, Austerity and Development in Latin America, Westview Press, Boulder, 1989, pp. 69-97.
78. . Cordera Campos, R. and E. González Tiburcio, "Crisis and transition in the Mexican economy", in M. González de la Rocha and A. Escobar (editors), Social Responses to Mexico's Economic Crisis of the 1980s, Centre for US-Mexican Studies, University of California, La Jolla, 1990.
79. . Ramos 1993, op. cit.
80. . Garza, Gustavo, Dinámica Industrial de la Ciudad de Mexico, 1940-1988, Mimeo, 1991, quoted in Gilbert 1994, op. cit.
81. . Clichevsy, Nora, Hilda Herzer, Pedro Pirez, David Satterthwaite and others, Construccion y Administracion de la Ciudad Latinoamericana, Grupo Editor Latinoamericano, Buenos Aires, 1990, 535 pages; Gilbert 1994, op. cit.
82. . See for instance Portes, Alejandro, "Latin American urbanization during the years of the crisis", Latin American Research Review, Vol. XXIV, No. 3, 1989, pp. 7-44 on Uruguay and Chile.
83. . Portes 1989, op. cit.
84. . Tello, C., "Combatting poverty in Mexico", in M. González de la Rocha and A. Escobar (editors), Social Responses to Mexico's Economic Crisis of the 1980s, Centre for US-Mexican Studies, University of California, La Jolla, 1990.
85. . Iglesias, Enrique V., Reflections on Economic Development: Towards a New Latin American Consensus, Inter-American Development Bank, 1992, quoted in Gilbert 1994, op. cit.
86. . CELADE 1995, op. cit.
87. . Infante, Ricardo and Emilio Klein, "The Latin American labour market, 1950-1990", CEPAL Review, No. 45, December 1991, pp. 121-135.
88. . Infante and Klein 1991, op. cit.
89. . Gilbert 94, op. cit.
90. . Infante and Klein 1991, op. cit.
91. . Clichevsky and others 1990, op. cit.
92. . Clichevsky and others 1990, op. cit.
93. . Clichevsky and others 1990, op. cit.
94. . Clichevsky and others 1990, op. cit.
95. . Clichevsky and others 1990, op. cit.
96. . Arriagada, Irma, "Unequal participation by women in the working world", CEPAL Review No. 40, April 1990, pp. 83-98.
97. . Based on figures drawn from INDEC's permanent household survey in Arrossi, Silvina, "Latin America: Background paper for the Global Report on Human Settlements", IIED-América Latina, 1995.
98. . CELADE 1995, op. cit.
99. . This draws from Chapter II of Clichevsky and others 1990 but using updated figures
100. . Lattes 1995, op. cit.
101. . Lattes 1995, op. cit., page 149

 

102. . Hardoy, Jorge E. and David Satterthwaite, Squatter Citizen: Life in the Urban Third World, Earthscan Publications, London, 1989.
103. . Hardoy, Jorge E., "Two thousand years of Latin American urbanization", in J.E. Hardoy (Editor), Urbanization in Latin America: Approaches and Issues, Anchor Books, New York, 1975.
104. . Lattes 1995, op. cit.
105. . Mexico City's pre-colonial precursor, Tenochitlan, was the region's largest city in 1500 and among the world's largest cities at that time.
106. . Han-chande, Roberto, "Demographic and urban aspects of Mexico's border with the United States", in Mutsuo Yamada (Coordinator), Urbanization in Latin America: its Characteristics and Issues, The University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba-shi, 1990, pp. 31-42.
107. . Sklair, Leslie, "Global system, local problems: environmental impacts of transnational corporations along Mexico's northern border", in Hamish Main and Stephen Wyn Williams (Editors), Environment and Housing in Third World Cities, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, 1994, pp. 85-105.
108. . Gilbert 1994, op. cit.
109. . Gilbert 1994, op. cit.
110. . Sklair 1994, op. cit.
111. . Sklair 1994. op. cit.
112. . Han-chande 1990, op. cit.
113. . Davila 1995, op. cit.
114. . Davila 1995, op. cit.
115. . Duarte 1991, op. cit.
116. . Townroe, P.M. and D. Keen, "Polarization reversal in the State of Sao Paulo", Regional Studies, Vol. 18, No. 1, 1984, pp. 45-54.
117. . Rofman, A.B., "Argentina: a mature urban pattern", Cities, Vol. 2, No. 1, Butterworth Press, 1985, pp. 47-54.
118. . See for instance United Nations, Urban, Rural and City Population, 1950-2000, as assessed in 1978, ESA/P/WP.66, New York, June 1980, 38 pages.

 

 

 

119. . Negrete, María Eugenia and Héctor Salazar, "Dinámica de crecimiento de la población de la ciudad de México: 1900-1980", in Gustavo Garza et al. (editors), Atlas de la Ciudad de Mexico, Departamento del Distrito Federal y El Colegio de México, Mexico DF, 1987.

 

 

120. . Davila 1995, op. cit.
121. . Davila 1995, op. cit.
122. . Gugler, J., "A Minimum of Urbanism and a Maximum of Ruralism: the Cuban Experience" in International Journal of Urban and Regional Research Vol. 4, 1980, pp. 516-535 and Hardoy, Jorge E. Urban and Agrarian Reform in Cuba, SIAP/IDRC, Ediciones SIAP, 1979, Buenos Aires.
123. . Garza, Gustavo, "Dynamics of Mexican urbanization: Mexico City emerging megolopolis and Metropolitan Monterrey", Background Paper for the UN Global Report on Human Settlements, 1995. However, there are several Mexican cities that are growing rapidly and are close to 1 million inhabitants so the 2000 census may find an increased proportion in one million plus cities, as several cities have been added to the list of million-cities.
124. . Chapter 9 of Hardoy, Jorge E. and David Satterthwaite, Squatter Citizen: Life in the Urban Third World, Earthscan Publications, London, 1989.
125. . Manzanal, Mabel and Cesar Vapnarsky, "The development of the Upper Valley of Rio Negro and its periphery within the Comahue Region, Argentina", in Jorge E. Hardoy and David Satterthwaite (Editors), Small and Intermediate Urban Centres; their role in Regional and National Development in the Third World, Hodder and Stoughton (UK) and Westview (USA), London, 1986.
126. .Verduzco, Gustavo, "Crecimiento urbano y desarrollo regional: el caso de Zamora, Michoacan", Revista Interamericana de Planificacion, Vol.XVIII, No.71, September 1984, pp. 67-80.
127. . Chapter 9 of Hardoy, Jorge E. and David Satterthwaite, Squatter Citizen: Life in the Urban Third World, Earthscan Publications, London, 1989.
128. . Hardoy and Satterthwaite 1989, op. cit.
129. . del Olmo, Elvia, "Case study: Cuautla, Mexico", in UNCHS (Habitat), The Management of Secondary Cities in Latin America, Nairobi, 1994.

 

130. . Abaleron, Carlos Alberto, "Marginal urban space and unsatisfied basic needs: the case of San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina", Environment and Urbanization, Vol.7, No.1, April 1995, pp. 97-115.
131. . Hernández de Padrón, Maria Inés,"Case study: Merida, Venezuela", in UNCHS (Habitat), The Management of Secondary Cities in Latin America,Nairobi, 1994.
132. . UNCHS (Habitat) 1994, op. cit.
133. . Cline, W.R., Facilitating labor adjustment in Latin America, Unpublished document prepared for the Inter-American Development Bank, October 1991, quoted in Gilbert 1994, op. cit.
134. . Iglesias 1992, op. cit.

176. . This section draws on a series of background papers commissioned for the Global Report. These include a series of background papers and boxes prepared by Richard Kirkby on China, Yamada, Hiroyuki and Kazuyuki Tokuoka, "The trends of the population and urbanization in Post-war Japan", Kundu, Amitabh, Population growth and regional pattern of urbanization in India: an analysis in the context of changing macro-economic perspective, Islam, Nazrul, Professor "Dhaka; a profile" and "Urbanization in Bangladesh"; and Hasan, Arif, "Profiles of three Pakistani Cities: Karachi, Faisalabad and Thatta.
177. . United Nations 1995, op. cit.
178. . United Nations 1995, op. cit.
179. . K. Srinivasan, quoted in The Economist February 18th 1995, page 76
180. . ESCAP, State of Urbanization in Asia and the Pacific 1993, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, ST/ESCAP/1300, United Nations, Bangkok, 1993.
181. . Islam, Nazrul, "Dhaka; a profile", Background Paper for the Global Report on Human Settlements, 1994.
182. . Hardoy and Satterthwaite 1989, op. cit.
183. . If the urban population is that in city municipalities, 77.4 percent of the population lived in urban areas in 1990. If the urban population is that in what are termed Densely Inhabited Districts, which seek to exclude the rural populations that fall within city municipal boundaries, then 63.2 percent of the population lived in urban areas in 1990. If Standard Metropolitan Employment Areas are used, 73.6 percent of the population lived in urban areas in this year. See Yamada, Hiroyuki and Kazuyuki Tokuoka, "The trends of the population and urbanization in Post-war Japan, Background Paper for the United Nations Global Report on Human Settlements, 1995.
184. . China City Planning Review Vol.2, 1988 and China Daily 12.8, 1988
185. . This classification and analysis draws on McGee, Terence G. and C.J. Griffiths, "Global urbanization: towards the twenty-first century", in United Nations, Population Distribution and Migration, Proceedings of the United Nations Expert Meeting, ST/ESA/SER.R/133, U.N. Population Division, New York, 1994.
186. . Figures from Merrill Lynch for 1992 quoted in The Economist February 11th, 1995
187. . United Nations 1995, op. cit.
188. . Islam, Nazrul , "Urban research in Bangladesh and Sri Lanka: Towards an agenda for the 1990s", in Richard Stren (Editor), Urban Research in the Developing World: Volume I - Asia, Centre for Urban and Community Studies, Toronto, 1994, pp. 103-169.
189. . ESCAP 1993, op. cit.
190. Ibid. 2-27
191. . Kirkby, Richard, "Country Report: China", Background Paper for the United Nations Global Report on Human Settlements, 1995.
192. . Bose, Ashish, "Urbanization in India 1951-2001, in Bidyut Mohanty (Editor), Urbanization in Developing Countries: Basic Services and Community Participation, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi, 1993, pp. 107-124.
193. . Yamada and Tokuoka 1995, op. cit.
194. . Mboi, Nafsiah and Karen Houston Smith, "Urban research in Indonesia: its evolution and its future", in Richard Stren (Editor), Urban Research in the Developing World: Volume I - Asia, Centre for Urban and Community Studies, Toronto, 1994, pp. 173-251.
195. . Kundu, Amitabh, "Population growth and regional pattern of urbanization in India: an analysis in the context of changing macro-economic perspective", Background paper for the Global Report on Human Settlements, 1994.
196. . Kirkby 1995, op. cit.
197. . Kirkby 1995, op. cit.

 

198. . Kirkby 1995, op. cit.
199. . Mboi and Houston Smith 1994, op. cit.
200. . McGee and Griffiths 1994, op. cit.
201. . Kundu 1994, op. cit.
202. . Along with 3 declassifications and 103 merging with other towns; see Kundu 1994, op. cit.
203. . ESCAP 1993, op. cit.
204. . McGee and Griffiths 1994, op. cit, Kioe Sheng, Yap, personal communication
205. . Ginsberg, N., B. Koppel and T.G. McGee (Editors), The Extended Metropolis Settlement Transition in Asia, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1991.
206. . McGee, T.G., "Urbanization or Kotadesasi - the emergence of new regions of economic interaction in Asia", Working paper, Environment and Policy Institute, East West Center, Honolulu, June 1987.
207. . McGee 1987, op. cit.
208. . Lo, Fu-chen and Yue-man Yeung, Global Restructuring and Emerging Urban Corridors in Pacific Asia, United Nations University, Tokyo, 1995, 31 pages.
209. . Lo and Yeung 1995, op. cit.
210. . U Myint, personal communication quoted in ESCAP 1993, op. cit.
211. . United Nations, Human Settlements Situation in the ESCWA Region: Development Trends in the Housing Sector during the last Two decades", Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, E/ESCWA/HS/1993/1, 1993, 23 pages.
212. . Hasan, Arif, Profiles of three Pakistani Cities: Karachi, Faisalabad and Thatta, background paper prepared for the Global Report on Human Settlements, 1994.
213. . Hasan 1994, op. cit.
214. . Yamada and Tokuoka 1995, op. cit.
215. . Fujita, Masahisi and Ryoichi Ishii, "Location behaviour and spatial organization of multinational firms and their impact on regional transformation in East Asia: a comparative study of Japanese, Korean and US electronics firms", ISEAD Intermediate Research Report, University of Pennsylvania, draft, quoted in Lo and Yeung 1995, op. cit.
216. . Kirkby 1995, op. cit.

 

217. . For more details, see census data in Prakash Mathur, Om, "Responding to the urban challenge: a research agenda for India and Nepal", in Richard Stren (Editor), Urban Research in the Developing World: Volume I - Asia, Centre for Urban and Community Studies, Toronto, 1994, pp. 49-100.
218. . Kirkby, Richard (1994), "Dilemmas of urbanization: review and prospects", in Denis Dwyer (Editor), China: The Next Decades, Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow, pages 140-141.
219. . Far Eastern Economic Review 24.3.1988
220. . Zweig, D (1991), "Institutionalizing China's countryside: the political economy of exports from rural industry", China Quarterly Vol, 128, pp. 716-741 quoted in Kirkby 1995, op. cit.
221. . This is a condensed version of a paper by Stren, Professor Richard, "Population and urban change in Africa" prepared for the Global Report on Human Settlements, 1995.
222. . In United Nations 1995 (op. cit.), for half of all African nations, the latest census listed was 1983 or earlier while for 12 countries, there was no census listed since the early 1970s.
223. . United Nations 1995, op. cit.
224. . UNDP, Human Development Report, 1994, Oxford University Press, 1994.
225. . For 1985-90, the United Nations estimates that the average rate of growth of Africa's urban population was 4.34% annually; for the period 1990-95, it was estimated at 4.38% and for 1995-2000, projected to be 4.29% - see United Nations 1995 op. cit.
226. . Stambouli, Fredj, The Urban Profile of Tunis City Today, Background Paper for the Global Report, 1994.
227. . Stambouli 1994, op. cit.
228. . At the height of their development, African cities rivalled in size and urban form both contemporary European and Middle Eastern cities. Thus, a Portuguese traveller, writing in 1694, described the town of Benin (in present day Nigeria) in glowing terms, "...as larger than Lisbon; the streets are aligned in a rectilinear pattern as far as the eye can see. The houses are large -- particularly that of the King, which is elaborately decorated with fine columns. The town is rich and active. It is so well governed that theft is unknown, to the point that, because of a feeling of security, the people do not have gates for their houses." (Quoted in Catherine Coquery-Vidrovitch, Histoire des villes d'Afrique noire; Des origines à la colonisation, Albin Michel, Paris, 1993, p.181). Another traveller described the city of Djenné (near the town of Timbuktu in what is currently Mali) as "great, flourishing and prosperous...one of the great markets of the Muslim world"(Abdurahman es Sa'di, as quoted in Basil Davidson (Editor), The African Past, New York, 1967, p.94). Some of these settlements (such as Great Zimbabwe, Kano or Ife) began as spiritual centres, to evolve over time into secular towns. Others (such as Kampala or Kumasi) were originally the seat of a powerful king or ruling group.
229. . Gervais-Lambony, Philippe, De Lomé à Harare; Le fait citadin, Karthala, Paris, 1994.
230. . Attahi, Koffi "Planning and Management in Large Cities. A Case Study of Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire" in UNCHS (Habitat), Metropolitan Planning and Management in the Developing World: Abidjan and Quito, Nairobi, 1992, pp. 35-6.
231. . Mandy, Nigel, A City Divided: Johannesburg and Soweto, St. Martin's Press, New York, 1984, pp.1-3.
232. . Poinsot, Jacqueline, Alain Sinou and Jaroslav Sternadel, Les villes d'Afrique noire. Politiques et opérations d'urbanisme et d'habitat entre 1650 et 1960, La Documentation Française, Paris, 1989, p.11.
233. . One of the most influential sources of colonial legislation was the British Town and Country Planning Act of 1932, which was the source of the urban planning legislation in Kenya, Tanzania and the Rhodesias and was behind the Nigeria Town and Country Planning Ordinance, proclaimed in 1948, which eventually became the model for post-independence planning in the various states of the federal union.
234. . Kulaba, Saitiel, Urban Management and the Delivery of Urban Services in Tanzania, Ardhi Institute, Dar es Salaam, 1989, pp. 226-27.
235. . Stren, Richard "Urban Policy" in Joel Barkan and John J. Okumu (Editors), Politics and Public Policy in Kenya and Tanzania, Praeger, New York, 1979, p.186.
236. . White, Rodney "The Impact of Policy Conflict on the Implementation of a Government-assisted Housing Project in Senegal" Canadian Journal of African Studies Vol. 19, No. 3, 1985, p.512.
237. . Adjavou, Akolly et alia, Economie de la construction à Lomé, L'Harmattan, Paris, 1987, pp.20-21.
238. . The estimate, which is accepted by other researchers, was offered by Heather Joshi, Harold Lubell and Jean Mouly, Abidjan: Urban development and employment in the Ivory Coast, ILO, Geneva, 1976, p.66.

 

239. . For a survey of this research see Charles M. Becker, Andrew M. Hamer and Andrew R. Morrison, Beyond Urban Bias in Africa: Urbanization in an Era of Structural Adjustment, James Currey, London and Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann, 1994, chapter 4.
240. . Ibid, chapter 5.
241. . See, for example, Alan Gilbert and Joseph Gugler, Cities, Poverty and Development: Urbanization in the Third World, Oxford University Press, New York, 1992, pp.94-100; and Lisa Peattie, "An Approach to Urban Research in the 1990s" forthcoming in Richard Stren (Editor), Urban Research in the Developing World, Vol. IV, Centre for Urban and Community Studies, Toronto.
242. . Becker, Hamer and Morrison 1994, op. cit. pp.159-60.
243. . International Labour Organisation, Informal Sector in Africa, Jobs and Skills Programme for Africa, ILO, Addis Ababa, 1985, pp.13-15.
244. . Touré, Abdou, Les petits métiers à Abidjan. L'imagination au secours de la "conjoncture", Karthala, Paris, 1985, p.18.
245. . World Bank, Urban Policy and Economic Development. An Agenda for the 1990s, Washington DC, 1991, p.38.
246. . Dulucq, Sophie and Odile Goerg (Editors), Les investissements publics dans les villes africaines 1930-1985, L'Harmattan, Paris, 1989, p. 149.
247. . Ibid, pp. 41-44.
248. . Kulaba, Saitiel, Urban Management and the Delivery of Urban Services in Tanzania, Ardhi Institute, Dar es Salaam, 1989, p.118.
249. . DHS and Mazingira Institute, Nairobi: The Urban Growth Challenge, Mazingira Institute, Nairobi, 1988.
250. . Stren, Richard "Large Cities in the Third World" in UNCHS, Metropolitan Planning and Management in the Developing World: Abidjan and Quito, Nairobi, 1992, pp.10-11.
251. . Stren, Richard "The Administration of Urban Services" in Richard Stren and Rodney White (Editors), African Cities in Crisis. Managing Rapid Urban Growth, Westview, Boulder, 1989, p.47.
252. . Kulaba 1989, op. cit. pp.133-41.
253. . Godard, Xavier and Pierre Teurnier, Les transports urbaines en Afrique à l'heure de l'ajustement, Karthala, Paris, 1992, p.52.

 

254. . See Chapter 8 for more details
255. . Godard and Teurnier 1992, op. cit.
256. . World Bank, World Development Report 1994: Infrastructure for Development, Oxford University Press for the World Bank, New York, 1994, p.115.
257. . Antoine, Philippe and Amadou Ba, "Mortalité et santé dans les villes africaines" in Afrique contemporaine (Numéro spécial, 'Villes d'Afrique') No. 168, October/December 1993, p.140.
258. . Antoine and Ba 1993, op. cit. p.144.
259. . Lee-Smith, Diana, Mutsembi Manundu, Davinder Lamba and P. Kuria Gathuru, Urban Food Production and the Cooking Fuel Situation in Urban Kenya, Mazingira Institute, Nairobi, 1987.
260. . Rakodi, Carole "Urban agriculture: research questions and Zambian evidence" Journal of Modern African Studies Vol. 26, No.3, 1988, pp.495-515.
261. . Freeman, Donald, A City of Farmers: Informal Urban Agriculture in the Open Spaces of Nairobi, Kenya, McGill-Queen's University Press, Montreal and Kingston, 1991.
262. . Maxwell, Daniel and Samuel Zziwa, Urban Farming in Africa: The case of Kampala, Uganda ACTS Press, Nairobi, 1992, p.29.
263. . Schilter, Christine, L'agriculture urbaine à Lomé: Approches agronomique et socio-économique, Karthala and IUED, Paris and Geneva, 1991.